Show HN: I'm an airline pilot – I built interactive graphs/globes of my flights

https://jameshard.ing/_astro/james_neil_a350.CE3kQO6H_9zNaS.webp
User is a First Officer with British Airways, flying the Airbus A350 since 2023, after joining through a cadet scheme in 2014. They log flights digitally using LogTen Pro and have created visualisations to track their flying hours and routes.

US Supreme Court limits federal judges' power to block Trump orders

https://i.guim.co.uk/img/media/bcfac667a270b33ba0af80cc850ad4a2117132fe/0_0_6000_4000/master/6000.jpg?width=465&dpr=1&s=none&crop=none
The US Supreme Court ruled in favor of Donald Trump's attempt to limit federal judges' power to block his orders nationwide, restricting nationwide injunctions to specific plaintiffs. The decision has wide implications for the executive branch's power and may allow Trump to enforce citizenship restrictions in states where courts had not blocked them.

XSLT – Native, zero-config build system for the Web

https://repository-images.githubusercontent.com/1009304951/e2df87ac-0ea8-40c7-88e5-d7336864b81d
User wants to simplify web development by using HTML and CSS without frameworks, but struggles with complexity of big projects. User discovers web browser can be used as a build system with XSLT for transforming XML to HTML.

JWST reveals its first direct image discovery of an exoplanet

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Astronomers using the James Webb Space Telescope have discovered a faint infrared source near a young star called TWA 7, which is likely an exoplanet with a mass similar to Saturn's. The discovery marks the first direct imaging of an exoplanet by the telescope and provides new insights into planetary systems.

Project Vend: Can Claude run a small shop? (And why does that matter?)

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Anthropic partnered with Andon Labs to test AI model Claude Sonnet 3.7 in a real-world setting, running a small automated store in their office. The experiment aimed to evaluate AI's capabilities and limitations in managing a business, but Claudius made several mistakes, including ignoring lucrative opportunities and selling items at a loss.

Touching the back wall of the Apple store

https://bear-images.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/herman-1683556668-0.png
The writer and friends played a game in an Apple store where they tried to reach the back wall without being spoken to by staff. They eventually bought an iPod, which was a luxury good, but the writer credits an earlier generic MP3 player from Walmart with increasing their computer skills and leading to future interests in web and game development.

SymbolicAI: A neuro-symbolic perspective on LLMs

https://opengraph.githubassets.com/128f2c269f35b2a4228266c6890513e8ee644f0ac98371d6f70c88fdc5fcb0b3/ExtensityAI/symbolicai
SymbolicAI is a neuro-symbolic framework combining Python with LLMs, offering a modular design and customizable engine. It supports various engines and tools, including OpenAI, Anthropic, and local engines.

Qwen VLo: From “Understanding” the World to “Depicting” It

https://qianwen-res.oss-accelerate.aliyuncs.com/Qwen-VLo/vlo.png#center
Qwen VLo is a unified multimodal understanding and generation model that can create high-quality images and modify existing ones based on user instructions. It supports multiple languages and can handle complex tasks such as style transfer, scene reconstruction, and detailed touch-ups.

10 Years of Pomological Watercolors

https://parkerhiggins.net/assets/images/pomological/tangelo.jpg
The author advocated for the US government to release its Pomological Watercolor Collection, leading to its public availability. This sparked a decade-long journey of exploring and sharing the collection through coding, social media, and various projects.

Learn OCaml

Learn OCaml

Show HN: Zenta – Mindfulness for Terminal Users

https://opengraph.githubassets.com/4d001f14b24cfb20f96baa31e790e3e75ea69310d1009fe5febe5d36e1330f9e/e6a5/zenta
To stay focused while coding, return to breath with 'breath' alias. Use 'breathe' for a gentle session and 'reflect' for deeper centering.

Weird Expressions in Rust

https://www.wakunguma.com/thumbnails/rust-weird-expressions.png
Rust's type system allows for various quirks and extreme cases, such as coercing the never type into any other type. These quirks are valid Rust expressions that utilize features like loops, expressions, and coercion.

Copilot Chat in VS Code is now open source

https://raw.githubusercontent.com/microsoft/vscode-copilot-release/main/images/hero-dark.png
GitHub Copilot is an AI tool that helps write code faster and smarter with customizable chat responses and agent mode. It supports various languages and offers features like code completions, next edit suggestions, and inline chat for seamless coding sessions.

New proof dramatically compresses space needed for computation

https://static.scientificamerican.com/dam/m/c66e65d78e18f70/original/sa0925-computing-time.jpg?m=1750786882.235&w=600
Computer scientists have found that some problems can be solved with much less memory than previously thought, specifically about √t bits instead of t bits. This breakthrough relies on transforming problems into equivalent ones that can be solved with less space, allowing for more efficient use of memory.

The Plot of the Phantom, a text adventure that took 40 years to finish

https://scottandrew.com/img/plot-of-the-phantom-box-art.jpg
User finished a text adventure game they started as a teenager, recreating it with Inform 7 after 40 years. The game, The Plot of the Phantom, is now playable in a web browser.

Biomolecular shifts occur in our 40s and 60s (2024)

https://med.stanford.edu/content/dam/sm/shared/community/department-of-medicine/Immuno/faculty/mike-snyder_web300.jpg
A new Stanford Medicine study found that people's bodies undergo two periods of rapid change, around age 44 and 60, with significant shifts in molecules and microorganisms. These changes impact health, with increased risks for diseases like cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer's.

Normalizing Flows Are Capable Generative Models

https://mlr.cdn-apple.com/media/guided_samples_007a300190.jpeg
Researchers developed TarFlow, a simple and scalable Normalizing Flow (NF) model that achieves state-of-the-art results in image likelihood estimation and generation. TarFlow combines autoregressive Transformer blocks with a post-training denoising procedure for improved sample quality.

Parameterized types in C using the new tag compatibility rule

The Effect of Noise on Sleep

https://www.empirical.health/_astro/brandon.NTvXE6gb_Z1rKhrh.webp
Noise above 60 dB significantly impacts sleep quality, causing a sharp decline in restorative stages and overall sleep duration. Keeping bedroom sound levels below 60 dB is crucial for preserving restorative sleep stages and physiologic calm.
https://i.guim.co.uk/img/media/c9f977ffa97a102c43dda3f369a07dc7e94e155c/0_1076_3648_2918/master/3648.jpg?width=465&dpr=1&s=none&crop=none
The Danish government plans to change copyright law to protect people's identities from AI-generated deepfakes. The new law will give individuals the right to demand removal of unauthorized content and could result in fines for tech platforms that don't comply.

Show HN: Sink – Sync any directory with any device on your local network

https://opengraph.githubassets.com/b93108c2234943a9ae8debecdeb28ecbcc3eb46d73a512dec7d354ca5cb5991f/sirbread/sink
The user is developing a local network syncing tool called .sink that allows syncing directories between two Windows machines without cloud or external storage. It features conflict handling, ignore patterns, and automatic syncing in a specified directory.

Ask HN: Is anyone else just done with the industry?

Self-taught dev frustrated with job hunting, feeling undervalued and lied to by companies that prioritize AI and outsourcing over human skills. Tired of absurd hiring processes and furious at companies for treating employees poorly and pushing RTO nonsense.

Rust in the Linux kernel: part 2

Fujita Tomonori wrote a Rust version of the Asix AX88796B Ethernet controller driver, which is a useful touchstone for comparing Rust and C in the kernel. The Rust driver uses macros, traits, and references to implement the PHY driver interface, which is similar to the C version but with some key differences.

Transmitting data via ultrasound without any special equipment

https://halcy.de/blog/images/2025_06_27_elo.jpg
Researchers used sound and ultrasound to transmit data between devices without a network connection by encoding data into high-frequency audio signals that are inaudible to humans. They implemented a return-to-zero frequency shift keying method to encode data into audio signals, which can be decoded by detecting shifts in frequency and turning them back into bits.

DeepSeek R2 launch stalled as CEO balks at progress

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A brief history of children sent through the mail (2016)

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In 1913, the US Post Office introduced Parcel Post, allowing rural communities to access goods and services, but it also led to some unusual incidents, including children being mailed to their grandparents. The practice was eventually stopped, but not due to a formal rule, rather due to local postal workers refusing to comply.

A lumberjack created more than 200 sculptures in Wisconsin's Northwoods

https://th-thumbnailer.cdn-si-edu.com/k_O99639vzwo-fWPURzJYdL41i0=/1026x684/https://tf-cmsv2-smithsonianmag-media.s3.amazonaws.com/filer_public/7b/aa/7baa9cf0-e23c-478c-87bb-d1fea4aa761d/gettyimages-564119051.jpg
Fred Smith, a retired lumberjack, created over 200 life-size concrete sculptures in Wisconsin from the 1940s to the 1960s, blending local culture and American history. His work, now preserved at the Wisconsin Concrete Park, showcases his reverence for nature and people, with intricate details and organic elements.

US Supreme Court Upholds Texas Porn ID Law

https://media.wired.com/photos/6852c1e7f85fb7362da56b61/1:1/w_2560%2Cc_limit/supreme-court-porn-agelimit-sec-2163792010.jpg
The US Supreme Court upheld a Texas law requiring age verification for adult websites, potentially setting a national precedent. The law fines websites up to $10,000 per day for not implementing age checks, and also requires health warnings about pornography's risks.

Microsoft is moving antivirus providers out of the Windows kernel

https://platform.theverge.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2025/03/STK109_WINDOWS_B.jpg?quality=90&strip=all&crop=0%2C0%2C100%2C100&w=2400
Microsoft is working with security vendors to move antivirus and endpoint detection apps out of the Windows kernel to prevent future problems like the faulty CrowdStrike update. The new Windows endpoint security platform will be built in cooperation with several security vendors and is expected to have good adoption rates due to customer demand.

Jane Austen's Boldest Novel Is Also Her Least Understood

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Structuring Arrays with Algebraic Shapes

Array programming languages often have simple type systems that are either nearly untyped or use powerful dependent types, but these approaches have limitations. Researchers propose a novel calculus called Star that uses structural record and variant types with subtyping to prevent indexing errors.

nimbme – Nim bare-metal environment

https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mikra01/nimbme/assets/pi_zero_wiring.png
The project uses Nim for a Raspberry Pi with a 250mHz core clock, 64kiB total RAM, and 24kiB shared heap. It features runtime cycle collection, UART communication, and overclocking capabilities with a setup working fine at 500mHz core clock.

PJ5 TTL CPU

https://pj5cpu.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/20221209_213938.jpg?w=1024
Jon and I work at Space Forge, recovering from a failed launch with Virgin Orbit. We're working on a custom display and peripherals for a project, including a joystick interface, sound card, and true random number generator.

The Power and Beauty of Incrementalism

https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Uac!,w_520,h_272,c_fill,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep,g_auto/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdedf6704-28c9-4145-9f24-3953291030a3_2224x1226.png
To create a friend compound, start small by getting 1-2 friends to move near you every 1-2 years. Use incremental steps like building ADUs, acquiring neighboring properties, and subdividing space to expand your community.

Brad Woods Digital Garden

https://garden.bradwoods.io/_next/image?url=%2Fimages%2FadeptusMechanicus.webp&w=384&q=75
Notes about creative coding on the Web.
https://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/GettyImages-1383559939-640x366.jpg
Meta won a partial victory in a copyright lawsuit against 13 authors, with the only remaining issue being whether Meta violated copyright laws by torrenting books used to train Llama models. Judge Chhabria suggested that authors may struggle to win this part of the fight due to a lack of evidence.

Modelling API rate limits as diophantine inequalities

The problem involves scheduling tasks with a retry pattern and rate limits, which can be modeled as a Diophantine equation. A sliding window approach can optimize the solution, reducing time complexity from O(n^2) to O(n*log(n)).

My Lights Run on Bash

The user replaced home light switches with Bash scripts to control smart lights remotely and with physical switches. They used MQTTR to launch scripts in response to MQTT messages and wrote additional Bash scripts to mirror JSON state and control brightness, color temperature, and state.

Cross-Compiling Common Lisp for Windows

The user successfully enabled Windows support for their Raylib bindings library and game, Aero Fighter, by cross-compiling on Linux and using Wine to run SBCL. They also created a build script to create a Windows executable of their Lisp program using SBCL and vend, a dependency manager for Common Lisp.

Slightly better named character reference tokenization than Chrome, Safari, FF

https://www.ryanliptak.com/images/better-named-character-reference-tokenization/firefox.svg
'character-by-character tokenization' gives a 1.13x speedup in firefox benchmarks. 'named character references are transformed into either 1 or 2 code points' if you don't have enough characters, backtrack and try again until you can be certain. the mappings are fixed, and the code point values are encoded in 21 bits. to do so, you'd need to convert between the 6 bit representation and actual

New EU rules on digital accessibility to come into force

https://www.rte.ie/images/0022ca53-500.jpg
New EU rules require websites and devices to be accessible for people with disabilities and elderly people, with fines and prison sentences for non-compliance. The rules aim to harmonize accessibility standards across EU member states and improve user experience for all.

Show HN: Open-Source International Space Station Tracker ESP32/Arduino for $20

https://raw.githubusercontent.com/GuitarML/SpaceStationTracker/main/resources/space_cyd.jpg
SpaceStationTracker is an ESP32-based application that displays the International Space Station's current position on a 2D world map using a 2.8" CYD screen and retrieves data from a RESTful API. The application requires a local WiFi connection and can be configured using a temporary hotspot and a touchscreen interface.

Apple Will Transition from the CTF to the CTC for EU Businesses

https://developer.apple.com/news/images/og/apple-developer-og.png
Apple has updated App Store terms for EU developers to allow communication and promotion of offers outside the app. A single business model will be implemented by January 1, 2026, with a new fee structure replacing the Core Technology Fee.

How to leave the house

https://assets.buttondown.email/images/27edd723-4211-436c-a186-0296ccfa13de.jpg?w=960&fit=max
The author discusses how to meet people and find community in a hyper-connected yet lonely world, citing their own experiences at a dog park where they formed connections with neighbors.

Blazing Matrix Products

The user explores optimizing matrix multiplication in BQN, achieving a sixfold speed-up by employing blocking and a further improvement using the Strassen algorithm. They then implement a parallel version of the Strassen algorithm using MPI, achieving a 31.04 times speed-up over the single-threaded version.

Multi-Stage Programming with Splice Variables

Multi-stage programming is a technique where programs generate other programs, eliminating runtime overhead and creating highly optimized code. This is achieved through the use of splice variables, which allow code generation to be predictable and safe.

Most ints are not floats

https://www.johndcook.com/jdc_20170630.jpg
Most 32-bit and 64-bit integers cannot be represented exactly as 32-bit or 64-bit floats. About 3.5% of 32-bit and 0.5% of 64-bit integers can be represented exactly as floats.

New Process Uses Microbes to Create Valuable Materials from Urine

https://newscenter.lbl.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Image-1_postmovie.png
Researchers at Berkeley Lab and UIUC genetically modified yeast to produce hydroxyapatite from human urine. This process could reduce wastewater treatment costs and create a valuable material for surgery and dentistry.

The Monster Inside ChatGPT

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Android phones could soon warn you of "Stingrays" snooping on your communicatio

https://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/cell-towers-300x200.jpg
Smartphones are vulnerable to hacking and surveillance through cell site simulators like Stingrays. Android 16 will detect and alert users to potential attacks, but only on phones with specific hardware support.

Life Expectancy in Europe Compared to the US

User needs to register or sign in with developer credentials and ensure a unique User-Agent string to access the application. Alternatively, they can try resetting to default User-Agent or file a ticket for assistance.

Data Centers, Temperature, and Power

https://www.backblaze.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/bb-bh-Data-Centers-Temperature-and-Power-1024x583.png
Data centers require significant power to operate, with the largest market in Northern Virginia having a 2,552 megawatt capacity. Power usage effectiveness (PUE) is a key metric for tracking power efficiency in data centers, with cooling accounting for approximately 40% of power usage.

UK to buy F-35As that can't be refueled from RAF tankers

https://regmedia.co.uk/2025/06/26/f-35a.jpg?x=648&y=365&infer_y=1
The UK government is buying 12 F-35A fighters capable of carrying nuclear weapons as part of NATO's deterrent, but they are incompatible with the RAF's refueling tanker aircraft. The purchase reintroduces a nuclear role for the RAF and will strengthen NATO's nuclear deterrent, but critics argue it's a stopgap measure until the RAF's next-generation Tempest fighter is developed.

Uv and Ray: Pain-Free Python Dependencies in Clusters

https://images.ctfassets.net/xjan103pcp94/2KhO6m2ouQYf5yJ3qF8iN0/cfbb66f0fd3e12d10c8a6323a3a31a65/Illustration_Dark_mode_updated.png?w=1200
The uv package manager integrates with Ray to simplify Python dependency management for distributed systems, ensuring consistent worker execution across clusters. This integration pairs uv's fast environment setup with Ray's scalable programming model for efficient distributed code execution.

Show HN: A Python Language Server, Mypy-compatible

https://zubanls.com/vscode.png
ZubanLS is a fast Python language server developed by the creator of Jedi, offering precision, reliability, and speed. It addresses performance issues in tools like Mypy and Pyright, with support for Django and other LSP features underway.

Supreme Court limits nationwide injunctions in birthright citizenship order

https://media.npr.org/assets/img/2019/05/28/npr_nina_totenberg_001_sq-80d6ee9eeccc9b3909ee7ffec432186d057d1ec9.jpg?s=100&c=85&f=jpeg
The Supreme Court ruled 6-3 that federal courts cannot issue nationwide blocks on policies, allowing Trump's birthright citizenship order to take effect in 30 days. The decision is seen as a victory for Trump's immigration policy, but immigrant rights groups and liberal justices disagree.

Theoretical Analysis of Positional Encodings in Transformer Models

https://arxiv.org/static/browse/0.3.4/images/arxiv-logo-fb.png
Researchers analyzed positional encoding methods in transformer models, proposing new methods based on orthogonal functions for better expressiveness and generalization. Experimental results show that these new methods outperform traditional sinusoidal encodings in generalization and extrapolation.

Some thoughts on my first YC Demo Day

https://billchambers.me/images/demo-day/spring-demo-day.png
The author attended YC and found it to be a unique experience with a well-filtered group of high-agency people. The event felt like a business festival with great networking opportunities and a sense of momentum.

New IQ research shows why smarter people make better decisions

https://scx0.b-cdn.net/pic/Gaby.jpg
A new study from the University of Bath found that individuals with higher IQs make more accurate predictions, leading to better decision-making and life outcomes. Smarter individuals tend to have more accurate beliefs about uncertain future events, making them better at forecasting and decision-making.

Web Numbers

https://ar.al/2025/06/25/web-numbers/web-numbers.png
The Small Web is a decentralized, personal social web where users can have their own site at their own domain or IP address. Let's Encrypt's upcoming support for IP address certificates will simplify the Small Web setup process, making it easier for users to join.

You Don't Own the Word "Freedom"

A blogger responded to a smug comment about Linux, criticizing the commenter's gatekeeping and lack of empathy for users with disabilities. The commenter's "freedom" is actually a wall that excludes those who need help.

Echo Chamber: A Context-Poisoning Jailbreak That Bypasses LLM Guardrails

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A researcher at Neural Trust discovered the Echo Chamber Attack, a novel jailbreak technique that defeats LLM safety mechanisms by leveraging context poisoning and multi-turn reasoning. The attack achieves a high success rate of over 90% on several leading models, including GPT-4, by subtly manipulating the model's internal state through indirect references and semantic steering.
https://klinger.io/images/eu-inc.png
The EU Inc project aims to create a pan-European legal entity that simplifies startup creation and investment across the continent, promoting scale and momentum for European founders. A lean, tech-first approach is advocated, with a focus on fast incorporation, investments, and stock options, while special programs can offer additional benefits in specific areas.

Show HN: PILF, The ultimate solution to catastrophic oblivion on AI models

https://raw.githubusercontent.com/dmf-archive/PILF/main/output/ViT/legacy_img/20250626-BASE_ViT-Params_0.81M.png
The Predictive Integrity Learning Rate Scheduler (PILR-S) transforms fixed hyperparameters into dynamic policies driven by the intrinsic 'surprise' of data, allowing models to autonomously decide how much to learn and with what capacity. This adaptive framework replaces traditional fixed learning rate schedulers and achieves on-demand resource allocation, unifying learning and forgetting ...

So you want to serialize some DER?

A developer optimized a Rust library for DER parsing and serialization, and then used a large language model (LLM) named Claude to implement a new optimization in the LLVM compiler, which was later verified using a formal verification tool called Alive2. The LLM was able to produce a working PR to implement the optimization, and the developer was impressed by the results, highlighting the ...

Welsh publisher brings Tolkien classic in Celtic languages together

https://nation.cymru/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Nation-25.jpg
A Welsh publisher has released the Welsh translation of The Hobbit, Yr Hobyd, and made other Celtic language editions available. The translations include Welsh, Breton, Cornish, Irish, and Scottish Gaelic versions of the classic novel.

The Journey of Bypassing Ubuntu's Unprivileged Namespace Restriction

https://u1f383.github.io/assets/image-20250623000000003.png
Ubuntu introduced AppArmor-based protections to lock down unprivileged namespaces, but a bypass method was discovered, allowing attackers to create unprivileged namespaces. The bypass method involves switching the process's profile to an unconfined status, which can be done by applying a non-default profile.

Raymond Laflamme (1960-2025)

https://www.scottaaronson.com/ray.jpg
The author is mourning the loss of Ray Laflamme, a pioneer in quantum computing and information, who played a key role in launching the author's career. Laflamme's work, including the KLM Theorem and the One Clean Qubit model, had significant impacts on the field.

Does Form Shape Function?

https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/L.-Mahadevan.webp
Mahadevan is interested in questions that you wouldn't normally ask, like what's the equilibrium shape of a möbius strip. he says if you let it relax to its lowest energy, what would it look like? strogatz: physics is easy to construct questions based on the world around you and your own experience. mahadevan: we need to think about how we experience the physical world - and how

AI is ruining houseplant communities online

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AI-generated plant content is spreading misinformation and scams in online communities, disconnecting people from reality and nature. This proliferation of fake plant photos and care advice is discouraging meaningful engagement and community connection among plant enthusiasts.

Researching LED Displays for the Time Circuits

https://www.partsnotincluded.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/TimeCircuits_BTTF1-Hero.png
The user is researching specifications for LED displays to replicate the time circuits from the Back to the Future films. They have determined the desired display specifications as 0.6" digit height, 0.5" display width, hard-edged digits, and a black face.

More on Apple's Trust-Eroding 'F1 the Movie' Wallet Ad

Apple's decision to send a F1 movie ad through Wallet app is destructive to its private reputation. It creates a perception that Apple Wallet tracks users' interests and activities.

Why Are Homes in Western US States So Expensive?

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Western US states have high housing costs due to high demand and limited supply, with counties in these states having a median home value to median income ratio of 4.87 compared to 3.07 for the US overall. The high demand is driven by attractive geography and climate, as well as economic growth, but restrictive land use regulations also contribute to the issue.

Shadow of a Doubt

https://harpers.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/CUT_12-955x1124.jpg
Bob greene: we don't know where or what ocd comes from. he says the driving force behind these antics is a tyrannizing uncertainty. it's like hopping at smoky bar in l.a. the ocd myths are rooted in our cultural dna, and they're not new, either, if they ever were, green says. they are old. we've

Show HN: Shouldiuse.dev – Software dependency health checker

Easily assess open-source dependencies with shouldiuse.dev. Check maintenance, security, and risk before adding libraries to your codebase.

Recreational programming: Tacit programming in Prolog

https://opengraph.githubassets.com/122cd14870e97733a0ad12d534c9e73a811bf2836ac0c4526b7f894a31a54eb7/mthom/scryer-prolog/discussions/2991
Nothing serious, I just find it interesting. main(R) :- phrase(main, [1,2,3|S], [R|S]). % Look! No variables! main --> mul, add, is_, dup, pi, sub, swp, pow, abs, is_. pop --> [_]. dup, [A,A]...

What 1k Contributors Taught Me About Open-Source

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Timeline of US Class I Railroads Since 1977

A brief history of the north american rail system, mainly through major changes to class i railroads. the most significant changes have occurred in the last 50 years involving the u.s. class of railroad, the largest class by operating revenue. most of these changes took place between 1890 and the mid-1990s, with the exception of nebraska and ohio pacific railroad reorganizing in 1994. despite ...